seligman and the learned helplessness experiment

Learned Helplessness

Charlotte Nickerson

Research Assistant at Harvard University

Undergraduate at Harvard University

Charlotte Nickerson is a student at Harvard University obsessed with the intersection of mental health, productivity, and design.

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Saul McLeod, PhD

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Learned helplessness is a psychological state in which an individual, after repeated exposure to uncontrollable negative events, believes they are powerless to change their situation, even when opportunities to do so arise. This leads to passivity, decreased motivation, and a sense of hopelessness, which can persist even when circumstances change and control is possible. Learned helplessness is often associated with depression.

Key Takeaways

• Learned Helplessness is a phenomenon that occurs when a series of negative outcomes or stressors cause someone to believe that the outcomes of life are out of one’s control.
• If a person learns that their behavior makes no difference to their aversive environment, they may stop trying to escape from aversive stimuli even when escape is possible.
• Martin Seligman and Steven F. Maier first identified learned helplessness as a phenomenon in the 1960s. These psychologists conducted experiments on dogs, finding that, when exposed to repeated shocks that they could not control, the animals refrained from taking action when they could prevent the shocks.
• Learned helplessness has notably been linked to and used as an explanation for depression and post-traumatic stress disorder in humans, but not without criticism.
• There are a number of ways to overcome learned helplessness. One mentioned by Seligman himself is learned hopefulness.

What Is Learned Helplessness?

Learned Helplessness is a phenomenon where repeated exposure to uncontrollable stressors results in people failing to use any methods to control their response to those stressors that are at their disposal in the future.

Essentially, those experiencing learned helplessness are said to learn that they lack behavioral control over the events in their environment, which, in turn, undermines their motivation to make changes or attempt to alter situations.

The first people to describe learned helplessness were the American psychologists Steven F. Maier and Martin E. P. Seligman.

Martin Seligman conducted a series of classic experiments in the 1960s (Seligman & Maier, 1967). Some dogs were placed in a chamber where they received electric shocks from which they could not escape (the non-escape condition).

The dogs in the escape group could escape the shocks by pressing a panel with their nose.

In the second phase, the animals were placed in a shuttle box divided by a barrier in the middle so that the dogs could jump in order to escape the shocks. Only the dogs that had learned to escape in the previous phase tried to jump. The other dogs did not.

When the dogs in the “non-escape” condition were given the opportunity to escape the shocks by jumping across a partition, most failed even to try; they seemed just to give up and passively accept any shocks the experimenters chose to administer.

In comparison, dogs who were previously allowed to escape the shocks tended to jump the partition and escape the pain.

3 symptoms of learned helplessness

Martin Seligman, the psychologist who first described learned helplessness, identified three main features that characterize this behavior:

• Lack of motivation: When faced with new challenges or difficult situations, people with learned helplessness often fail to respond or even try. They feel like giving up before they start and have a low tolerance for even the smallest bumps in the road.
• Difficulty learning from success : Even when people with learned helplessness manage to cope with a situation successfully, they have trouble learning from that experience. They don’t see their success as a sign that they can handle similar challenges in the future.
• Emotional numbness : People with learned helplessness may seem less affected by painful or stressful events. They might appear to be emotionally flat or unresponsive.

However, later research found that even though people with learned helplessness might seem emotionally numb on the outside, they are actually experiencing high levels of stress on the inside.

Scientists discovered this by measuring cortisol levels, a stress hormone, in their blood (Ackerman, 2022).

Is learned helplessness a mental health condition? 

Learned helplessness is not a diagnosable mental health condition but a thought disorder characterized by problematic thinking patterns that lead to maladaptive behavior.

Although not a standalone disorder, learned helplessness can feature in or exacerbate other mental health conditions such as anxiety, depression, phobias, and loneliness.

Symptoms of learned helplessness, including low motivation, perceived lack of control, and low self-esteem, overlap with those of depression and anxiety.

In the 1970s, Seligman extended the concept of learned helplessness from nonhuman animal research to clinical depression in humans and proposed a learned helplessness theory to explain how people become vulnerable to depression.

According to this theory, people who are repeatedly exposed to stressful situations beyond their control develop an inability to make decisions or engage effectively in purposeful behavior.

Subsequently, researchers have noticed that this learned helplessness theory is similar to posttraumatic stress disorder (Ackerman, 2022).

The Role of Explanatory Styles in Learned Helplessness

Although the initial learned helplessness theory was considered an important breakthrough in its time, it soon became accepted that the theory needed further development to apply to humans, who are more complex than other animals in terms of their cognitive processes.

Seligman and colleagues later reformulated the original learned helplessness model of depression (Abramson, Seligman, & Teasdale, 1978).

In their reformulation, they emphasized attributions (i.e., a mental explanation for why something occurred) that lead to the perception that one lacks control over negative outcomes and are important in fostering a sense of learned helplessness.

The explanatory style model of learned helplessness seeks to identify patterns in individual reactions to positive and negative events and occurrences in their lives.

The model’s logic is that when individuals find themselves in a situation where something has gone either right or wrong, they will ask why.

The answers that that person tends to give when asking themselves that kind of question will dictate whether that person defaults to an optimistic or pessimistic explanatory style (Healy, 2017).

Unhelpful : When a negative event occurs, if someone believes that the cause of the event is stable or long-lasting, this perspective can lead to chronic feelings of helplessness.

Helpful : When a negative event occurs, if someone believes that the cause is temporary, this perspective can reduce feelings of helplessness.

Unhelpful : If a person believes that the cause of a negative event will impact multiple areas of their life, they may be more susceptible to experiencing widespread helplessness.

Helpful : If a person believes that the cause of a negative event is specific to the issue at hand and will not affect other areas of their life, they will be less likely to experience helplessness.

Unhelpfu l: If someone attributes the cause of a negative event to their own actions or characteristics (an internal cause) rather than external factors, it can have negative consequences for their self-esteem.

In their writing on explanatory styles, Martin Seligman and Christopher Peterson (1967) stressed that one’s explanatory style will tend to follow a pattern. That means that someone will tend to respond to positive and negative events in consistent, habitual ways.

This can be very advantageous to someone’s well-being if they happen to default to an optimistic explanatory style, but very problematic for those who tend toward pessimism.

In fact, learned helplessness and a pessimistic explanatory style are each linked with the development of depression in individuals (Healy, 2017).

Optimistic vs. Pessimistic Explanatory Styles

The markers of an optimistic explanatory style stand in direct contrast to those signaling their pessimistic counterpart.

• For example, while the pessimistic style can view negative circumstances as something that will inevitably persist and positive occurrences as temporary, the optimistic style tends to view negative circumstances as temporary and expects positive occurrences to persist.
• Additionally, while the negative explanatory style tends toward self-blame for outcomes that go awry and credit external factors when things go right, the positive style leads to individuals crediting themselves when things go right and identifying external factors as key when things go wrong (Healy, 2017).

Nonetheless, moderation is required in considering the extent to which an optimistic explanatory style is the most beneficial for overcoming learned helplessness.

For example, always defaulting to blaming others or circumstances when things go wrong and always attributing successes as exclusively one’s doing can, while meeting the criteria for the optimistic explanatory style, constitute a problem in itself (Healy, 2017).

Overcoming Learned Helplessness

Ultimately, Learned helplessness provides an explanation for human behaviors that may otherwise seem odd or counterproductive, and understanding learned helplessness provides pathways to removing or reducing its negative impacts (Ackerman, 2022).

Focus on what you can control

Focusing on what you can control is a powerful way to combat learned helplessness. When you feel like everything is out of your control, it’s easy to give up and feel helpless.

But by shifting your focus to the things you can influence, you can start to regain a sense of power over your life.

For example, you might not be able to control whether or not you get a promotion at work, but you can control how much effort you put into your job.

You can’t control the weather, but you can control how you prepare for and respond to it.

Here are some things you can control:

• Your attitude : Choose to approach challenges with a positive, can-do mindset.
• Your effort : Decide how much time and energy you put into your goals.
• Your response : You can’t always control what happens to you, but you can control how you react to it.
• Your self-care : Prioritize taking care of your physical and mental health.
• Your relationships : Nurture the relationships that bring positivity into your life.

By focusing on these areas, you remind yourself that you have the power to influence your life, even in small ways.

This can help combat the feeling of helplessness and give you the confidence to tackle bigger challenges over time.

Learned optimism

Learned optimism, a concept introduced by Martin Seligman, is the antithesis of learned helplessness.

While learned helplessness involves internalizing a sense of hopelessness about one’s circumstances, learned optimism encourages individuals to challenge their negative thought processes and adopt a more positive outlook.

By doing so, people can change their behaviors and ultimately, their outcomes.

The process of developing learned optimism involves recognizing and questioning the automatic negative thoughts that contribute to feelings of helplessness.

When faced with a challenge or setback, individuals with learned optimism actively reframe their thoughts, looking for alternative explanations and solutions rather than defaulting to self-blame or despair.

For example, instead of thinking, “I failed because I’m not good enough,” a person practicing learned optimism might think, “This was a tough situation, but I can learn from it and do better next time.”

By consistently challenging negative self-talk and focusing on the aspects of a situation they can control, individuals can gradually shift their mindset from one of helplessness to one of resilience and empowerment.

Cultivating learned optimism takes time and practice, but it can have a profound impact on an individual’s well-being, motivation, and ability to overcome challenges.

By adopting a more optimistic outlook, people can break free from the cycle of learned helplessness and take active steps toward creating positive change in their lives.

Learn from failures

Carol Dweck, a psychologist, has found another powerful way to reduce learned helplessness, and it involves experiencing failure. In her research, Dweck divided people into two groups:

• The first group was given tasks that were designed for them to fail. After failing, they were told to take responsibility for their failure and to believe that it happened because they didn’t put in enough effort.
• The second group was given tasks that were easy enough for them to succeed every time. They never experienced failure during the study.

The results of Dweck’s (1975) study were interesting. The group that only experienced success showed no changes in how they reacted to failure later on. They still had extreme, negative reactions when they failed at something.

However, the group that experienced failure and was taught to take responsibility for it showed big improvements. They didn’t react as badly when they failed at something later on.

In simple terms, this study suggests that experiencing failure and learning to see it as a result of not trying hard enough, rather than a lack of ability, can help people overcome learned helplessness.

It teaches them that failure isn’t permanent and that they have the power to change the outcome next time by putting in more effort.

Learned hopefulness

Learned hopefulness is a concept that emphasizes the importance of empowering experiences in helping individuals overcome learned helplessness.

It suggests that by providing opportunities for people to learn new skills and develop a sense of control over their lives, they can become more resilient in the face of everyday challenges and barriers.

Unlike learned optimism, which focuses on changing thought patterns, learned hopefulness emphasizes the role of actual experiences in shaping one’s outlook and ability to cope with difficulties.

When individuals are exposed to situations that allow them to successfully navigate challenges, they develop a sense of mastery and control. This, in turn, helps them approach future obstacles with greater confidence and determination.

By fostering learned hopefulness through supportive environments and skill-building opportunities, individuals can break free from the cycle of learned helplessness and develop a more empowered, proactive approach to life.

This resilience can serve as a buffer against the negative effects of stress and adversity.

Overparenting and learned helplessness

Overparenting, often associated with “helicopter parents,” can inadvertently contribute to developing learned helplessness in adulthood.

When parents consistently intervene and solve their children’s problems, children may become overly dependent on their parents’ support.

This dependency can lead to a fear of failure and a belief that they are incapable of succeeding without their parent’s help.

While it can be difficult for parents to watch their children struggle, experiencing routine failures and challenges is essential to growing up.

These experiences teach children valuable skills such as problem-solving, coping with disappointment, and building resilience.

By facing and overcoming obstacles on their own, children develop a sense of self-efficacy and learn that they can navigate difficult situations.

While well-intentioned, overparenting can deprive children of these crucial learning opportunities, potentially leading to learned helplessness and a lack of confidence in their own abilities as adults.

Learned helplessness in education

Learned helplessness is a common subject of interest in the field of education. In particular, educators are interested in how early academic failure or low academic self-esteem can impact later success and how the relationship can be influenced to enhance chances of success (Firmin, Hwang, Copella, & Clark, 2004).

Learned helplessness in students creates a cycle where those who feel they are unable to succeed are unlikely to put effort into schoolwork. This, in turn, decreases their chances of success, leading to even less motivation and effort.

This cycle can culminate in a student having almost no motivation to learn a subject and no competence.

It can even lead to a more generalized sense of helplessness in which the student has no belief in their ability and no motivation to learn any subject at school (Firmin, Hwang, Copella, & Clark, 2004).

Educators have developed a few strategies that can help prevent students from learning to be habitually helpless, such as:

Providing praise and encouragement based on the student’s abilities to help them believe they are good at these subjects.

Providing praise and encouragement based on a student’s efforts.

Working on individual goal-setting with students to help them learn that goals can be achieved and that outcomes can be in their control (Firmin, Hwang, Copella, & Clark, 2004).

Learned helplessness in relationships

Learned helplessness is also of interest to researchers focused on domestic violence, as it’s often observed in relationships involving abuse.

The phenomenon of learned helplessness has helped researchers answer questions such as why those who are abused do not tell others, try to get help or leave the relationships (Ackerman, 2022).

Often, in abusive relationships, abusers subject their victims to repeated abuse to acclimatize the victims to the abuse and teach them that they do not have control over the situation.

The abusers, as a result, maintain complete control, and the victims learn that they are helpless about their circumstances (Ackerman, 2022). Often, these perceptions are very difficult to get rid of, often requiring intensive therapy and support (Ackerman, 2022).

Studies of learned helplessness in humans

Although experiments that are as extreme as Seligman’s have not been performed on humans — and would not pass ethically — experiments performed on humans have produced similar outcomes.

In one study of learned helplessness in humans, participants were split into three groups. One group was subjected to a loud and unpleasant noise but was able to end the noise by pressing a button four times, while the second group was subjected to the same noise, but the button was not functional.

Everyone was then given a box with a lever which, when manipulated, would turn off the sound. As in the animal experiments, those who had no control over the noise in the first part tended not even to try to turn the noise off, while the other participants did (Seligman, 1967; Ackerman, 2022).

Learned hopefulness at volunteer organizations

One example of an environment where individuals can learn hopefulness is voluntary organizations. Someone working at an after-school center, tutoring young children in mathematics and Seligman’s may be encouraged to see how their presence leads to students directly developing a better grasp of school material.

This may have run-off effects in other areas of the participant’s life. Zimmerman (1990) conducted a study of how empowered individuals felt after volunteering consistently in such environments, as measured by cognitive, personality, and motivational measures of perceived control.

He found that those who volunteered felt more in control of their own lives and were more likely to attribute their successes to their own actions (Zimmerman, 1990).

Criticisms of Learned Helplessness

Seligman’s original (1967) learned helplessness theory, as well as the reformulations of others, have received a number of criticisms.

Psychologists believe that there is more to depression than learned helplessness. While the symptoms of learned helplessness may mirror those of depression, there is an array of complex neurological and psychological factors underlying the condition.

Indeed, depression may not necessarily arise from a repeat failure.

For example, students may become depressed after repeatedly blaming themselves for chronic school stress and poor exam results.

Additionally, those in learned helplessness experiments have often described their task as skill tasks despite acting as if they were chance tasks.

That is to say, people participating in these learned helplessness experiments, while seemingly behaving as if they have no control over the outcome, have been known to say verbally that they still believe that their effort can influence its outcomes (Ackerman, 2022).

Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E., & Teasdale, J. D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: critique and reformulation .  Journal of abnormal psychology ,  87 (1), 49.

Ackerman, C. (2022). Learned helplessness: Seligman’s Theory of Depression .

Dweck, C. S. (1975). The role of expectations and attributions in the alleviation of learned helplessness. Journal of personality and social psychology, 31 (4), 674.

Firmin, M. W., Hwang, C. E., Copella, M., & Clark, S. (2004). Learned helplessness: The effect of failure on test-taking. Education, 124 (4), 688.

Healy, C. (2017). Learned Helplessness & Explanatory Style .

Maier, S. F., & Seligman, M. E. (2016). Learned helplessness at fifty: Insights from neuroscience . Psychological Review, 123 (4), 349.

Seligman, M. E., & Maier, S. F. (1967). Failure to escape traumatic shock. Journal of experimental psychology, 74 (1), 1.

Seligman, M. E. (1972). Learned helplessness .  Annual review of medicine ,  23 (1), 407-412.

Thompson, J. A. (2010). Learned helplessness: You’re not trapped .

Zimmerman, M. A. (1990). Toward a theory of learned hopefulness: A structural model analysis of participation and empowerment. Journal of research in personality, 24 (1), 71-86.

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Breaking the Imaginary Chains: Insights from The Learned Helplessness Experiment

By amelia sinclair, this article is divided into the following sections:.

The Learned Helplessness Experiment, conducted by psychologists Martin Seligman and Steven Maier in the late 1960s, has significantly influenced our understanding of behavior, motivation, and mental health. This study explored how exposure to uncontrollable stressors can lead to a state of helplessness and passivity, providing insights into the mechanisms of depression and resilience.

By examining the methodology, findings, and implications of the Learned Helplessness Experiment, we can gain a deeper understanding of the psychological processes underlying helplessness and its relevance to human behavior and well-being.

Methodology and Design

The Learned Helplessness Experiment was designed to investigate the effects of uncontrollable events on behavior. Seligman and Maier used dogs as subjects, dividing them into three groups. The first group was exposed to controllable electric shocks that could be terminated by pressing a lever, allowing the dogs to learn that their actions could influence the outcome. The second group received identical shocks but had no control over their duration, as the shocks were terminated by the actions of the dogs in the first group. The third group, the control group, was not subjected to any shocks.

After this initial phase, all three groups were placed in a shuttle box, where they could escape shocks by jumping over a low barrier. The researchers aimed to observe whether the experiences of the first phase would influence the dogs’ behavior in the new context, particularly their willingness to escape from an aversive situation.

Key Findings

The results of the Learned Helplessness Experiment were both revealing and troubling. The dogs that had previously experienced controllable shocks and those in the control group quickly learned to escape the shocks by jumping over the barrier. In contrast, the dogs that had been exposed to uncontrollable shocks exhibited a different behavior—they made little or no attempt to escape, even though they could easily do so. Instead, they lay down passively and endured the shocks without trying to change their situation.

These findings demonstrated that the experience of uncontrollability led to a state of learned helplessness, where the dogs believed they had no control over their environment and thus failed to take action, even when opportunities for escape were available. This behavioral pattern suggested that exposure to uncontrollable stressors could impair an individual’s ability to respond adaptively to new challenges.

Psychological Mechanisms and Implications

The Learned Helplessness Experiment revealed several psychological mechanisms underlying the development of helplessness. One key factor is the perception of control—or lack thereof—over the environment. When individuals experience repeated failures to exert control, they may develop a generalized belief that their actions are ineffective, leading to passivity and resignation. This phenomenon has profound implications for understanding human behavior, particularly in the context of motivation and mental health.

The concept of learned helplessness has been instrumental in explaining the development of depression. Individuals who encounter persistent and uncontrollable stressors may develop feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, which are core symptoms of depression. This understanding has informed therapeutic approaches, such as cognitive-behavioral therapy, which aims to challenge and modify maladaptive beliefs about control and agency.

The findings also have significant implications for educational and organizational settings. Recognizing the impact of perceived control on motivation and performance can guide the design of environments that empower individuals and promote resilience. By fostering a sense of autonomy and efficacy, educators and leaders can help prevent the development of learned helplessness and enhance overall well-being.

Ethical Considerations

While the Learned Helplessness Experiment provided valuable insights, it also raised ethical concerns regarding the use of animals and the induction of stress. The dogs in the experiment were subjected to aversive stimuli, which caused distress and suffering. Modern ethical standards emphasize the importance of minimizing harm and ensuring the humane treatment of research animals.

The ethical controversies surrounding the experiment have contributed to the development of stricter guidelines for animal research, promoting the welfare of subjects while advancing scientific knowledge. These guidelines ensure that researchers balance the pursuit of understanding with ethical responsibility, prioritizing the well-being of animal subjects.

Broader Societal Impact

The insights gained from the Learned Helplessness Experiment have had wide-ranging implications for various domains, including mental health, education, and organizational behavior. In mental health care, understanding the mechanisms of learned helplessness has informed the development of interventions for depression and anxiety. Therapeutic approaches that enhance perceived control and self-efficacy can help individuals overcome feelings of helplessness and improve their mental health outcomes.

In educational settings, promoting a sense of control and autonomy among students can enhance motivation and engagement. Educators can create learning environments that encourage problem-solving and resilience, helping students develop a growth mindset and a belief in their ability to influence outcomes.

In organizational contexts, fostering a culture of empowerment and support can mitigate the risk of learned helplessness and enhance employee performance and satisfaction. By recognizing the importance of perceived control, organizations can implement strategies that promote autonomy, collaboration, and positive reinforcement, ultimately improving workplace dynamics and productivity.

Theoretical Contributions

The Learned Helplessness Experiment has made significant contributions to psychological theories, particularly in understanding the relationship between control and behavior. It provided empirical support for the concept of learned helplessness and its role in shaping responses to adversity.

The study also contributed to broader discussions on motivation and behavioral regulation, highlighting the importance of perceived control in determining adaptive versus maladaptive responses. By elucidating the psychological mechanisms underlying helplessness, the experiment has informed theoretical frameworks and research on resilience, coping, and self-efficacy.

The Learned Helplessness Experiment conducted by Martin Seligman and Steven Maier remains a cornerstone in the study of behavior, motivation, and mental health. Through its innovative design and rigorous methodology, the experiment revealed the powerful impact of uncontrollable stressors on behavior, demonstrating how experiences of helplessness can lead to passivity and resignation.

As we reflect on the legacy of the Learned Helplessness Experiment, its lessons continue to resonate in various domains, from mental health care to education to organizational behavior. The study highlights the importance of fostering environments that promote perceived control, autonomy, and resilience, emphasizing the need for supportive and empowering approaches.

The relevance of the Learned Helplessness Experiment attests to its contributions to our understanding of behavior and motivation provide valuable guidance for addressing the challenges of helplessness and enhancing well-being. It serves as a reminder of the profound impact of perceived control on human behavior and the importance of creating conditions that enable individuals to thrive .

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